Unit 8
Introduction
School heads should see themselves as managers and should use their resources (people, money, property and time) effectively and efficiently to ensure that the school is and stays productive and profitable from an educational perspective.
Meetings are an essential practical aspect of running a school. Used as management tools they can be very beneficial but all too often they do not achieve the results intended. Holding effective meetings does not depend on intuition and good fortune but on effective leadership and management skills.
Individual study time: 3 hours
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
¨ understand the reasons for holding meetings
¨ understand the roles of the key players at a meeting
¨ plan meetings for different purposes
¨ conduct a meeting efficiently and effectively
¨ ensure participation in a meeting.
Attitudes to meetings
The success of every meeting depends on the co‑operation and support the chairperson receives from the participants. The chairperson should thus be fully aware of people's attitudes to meetings.
Give some thought to the diverse attitudes different people will have to meetings.
Comment
Persons will have opinions which range from considering all meetings to be unnecessary to others who thrive on the opportunity to have a captive audience and force their views on others. The success of meetings, therefore, will depend on your motivating those who do not want to be there and limiting those who want to take over.
Let us consider the factors which contribute to successful meetings.
¨ Clear definition of purpose: It is clearly stated what the committee and its members are supposed to do and what its goals are.
¨ Careful time control: Meetings start and end on time, with enough time allowed to get the work done and no more.
¨ Opinions respected: Meeting members listen and are sensitive to each other's needs and opinions.
¨ Informal atmosphere: Participants are encouraged to contribute to the discussion when the atmosphere is informal rather than being a formal exchange.
¨ Good preparation: Both chairperson and meeting members are well prepared, any materials required being available.
¨ Commitment: The members are qualified and interested, wanting to be a part of the meeting.
¨ No distractions: Interruptions are avoided or kept to a minimum.
¨ Record keeping: Good minutes or records are kept so that decisions are not lost, so there is no need to search out what decisions were made at the last meeting.
¨ Recognition of effort: Meeting members feel that they receive some kind of reward for their efforts, when their contributions are recognised and appreciated.
¨ Management response: The work of the meeting is accepted and used, making a real contribution to the school.
There are, however, many reasons that persons have for not liking meetings, the following are perhaps amongst the most common:
¨ Poor leadership: The leader does not keep the discussion on the subject and so fails to keep things moving in the appropriate direction and to engage in those aspects of the discussion that are stimulating and motivating to the members.
¨ Goals are unclear: Members are not really sure what they are trying to accomplish.
¨ Lack of commitment: Assignments are not taken seriously by committee members.
¨ No clear focus: For example, 'What are we supposed to be doing today?'
¨ Recommendations ignored: Management needs to be responsive to the recommendations of a committee.
¨ Inconclusive discussion: Problems are discussed but no conclusions are reached or decisions made.
¨ Lack of follow‑through: Members are not given assignments.
¨ Domination: Often one person or clique dominates a meeting, talking and pushing for their positions while others wonder why they are there.
¨ Bullying by the Chairperson: Sometimes the chairperson “names and shames” persons in meetings as a form of control.
¨ Lack of preparation: The agenda is not prepared and materials that really need to be there are not available. Someone has not done his or her homework.
¨ Hidden agendas: Some participants may have personal axes to grind, promoting discussions that only they think are important.
Is a meeting needed?
How can a school head avoid holding meetings that frustrate people? Some attention must be given to designing meetings that are productive. The first decision to be made is whether a meeting is really necessary.
Activity 7.1
List all the reasons you can think of for a school head calling a meeting.
Comment
It seems almost too obvious to mention that there needs to be a legitimate reason for holding a meeting. The design of the meeting depends on its purpose and what the hopes for outcomes are. Some legitimate reasons for having meetings are listed below. Legitimate purposes might include:
¨ to share information
¨ to plan future programmes, actions
¨ to co‑ordinate actions of individuals or units
¨ to solve problems
¨ to make a decision on a plan of action
¨ to gather information, get feedback, review past actions
¨ to determine policy
¨ to motivate, inspire
¨ to train, instruct
¨ to provide support, build cohesion.
Consider, from your own experience, examples of meetings that you have attended and have found to be less than productive and suggest reasons why.
Comments
Headteachers often conduct meetings because it is required of them. Some will say “We have meetings for meetings’ sake”. These can often be a waste of time, and serve no purpose to the improved management of a school. Among the reasons you gave may have been that the purpose of the meeting was not legitimate. The following list provides some questionable purposes for meetings:
¨ it is required or expected
¨ it is scheduled
¨ to deal with individuals in a group setting
¨ to punish or reprimand
¨ to exert control
¨ to gain visibility ‑ ego satisfaction.
Assuming there are legitimate reasons for holding a meeting, the next question to ask is: Is a meeting the best vehicle for accomplishing the objective? For example, if there is information that needs to be communicated, should one hold a communication meeting or would it be more efficient and effective to send out the information to all who need it via a memo or written document? The basic condition that determines if a meeting is needed centres on the question:
Do people have to interact face to face to achieve the objectives desired?
If the answer is yes, then a meeting is probably needed.
What type of meeting?
Meetings can take many different forms, from the more creative brainstorming techniques to formal school board meetings. Below you will find a brief summary of the different types of meetings you might employ as a school head.
Statutory: The law demands it, for example, Headteachers’ meetings with the Department of Education.
Managerial: Necessary to progress school affairs, for example, to inform of policy, to brief, to delegate tasks, to discuss problems, to reach group decisions, etc.
Creative: To generate ideas, to open up new possibilities or avenues of action, for example, to 'brainstorm' around the idea of what the school could design, manufacture; to produce an advertising slogan, poster, etc.
Planning; groups of teachers working together to plan schemes of work or programmes of study
Negotiating: To reach a solution to a problem, for example, management and the Guyana Teachers’ Union to agree pay increases acceptable to two sides with different interests.
General/public: To report back to a group, for example, an Annual General Meeting of staff members or to air matters of membership meetings, public inquiries into public interest matters.
Activity 7.2
1) As a school head, what type of meeting would you arrange for the following:
¨ To discuss new assessment procedures with the staff
¨ to plan a school fund raising activity;
¨ to discuss the behaviour of a teacher with your student council;
¨ to meet with the District Education Officer or school board?
2) Discuss the reasons why you have made a particular choice.
Participants' roles
In any meeting there are a number of defined roles. These are fairly common to most types of formal meetings. However, less formal meetings will not have all of these roles.
The chairperson
The role of the chairperson is to:
¨ co‑ordinate the work of the committee
¨ ensure that rules and procedures are kept to
¨ run meetings so that all members have a chance to air their views
¨ act as 'umpire' over disagreements, steering the meeting along avenues of decision‑making
¨ ensure that documents and records are efficiently kept
¨ foster good will and working relationships among staff members
¨ act as the meeting's leader and guide.
The secretary or clerk
The secretary's duties are to:
¨ carry out the administrative work of the meeting
¨ organise meetings and record the minutes
¨ liaise with the chairperson regarding the general running of the meeting
¨ keep meeting members and associated parties informed
¨ act as the chairperson's 'right hand'.
The treasurer
The role of the treasurer is to:
¨ monitor the meeting's financial activities
¨ record all its money transactions, submitting regular reports to the meeting as well as annual balance sheets
¨ liaise with an external auditor who scrutinises the books
¨ advise the committee in matters of financial expenditure.
The committee member
Among the duties of the committee member are to:
¨ participate at meetings and do the work delegated to him or her in the process of advising or decision‑making
¨ attend meetings regularly, offering information, views and responses either by means of voting or making views known to the chairperson
¨ keep staff or interested parties he or she represents informed of the work the committee is doing and the decisions it has reached.
Organising and preparing meetings
The organisation of meetings involves a school head in a great deal of work. In order to ensure that no job is missed, it is a good plan to deal with matters systematically. A checklist is an invaluable aid. It can be conveniently divided up into jobs to do well in advance, the day before the meeting, the day of the meeting, during the meeting and after the meeting.
Activity 7.3
To prepare yourself for your next meeting, list the type of activities you have to do:
¨ well in advance of a meeting;
¨ on the day of a meeting;
¨ during a meeting;
¨ after the meeting.
Comments
This list that you have developed might not necessarily be exhaustive. Use it as a starting point, and add to the list as you find new things that have to be arranged prior, during and after a meeting.
You will almost certainly have included preparing an agenda, inviting participants, outlining the purpose of the meeting, sending out any relevant paperwork / documents to the participants, reminding attendees of the meeting time, date and place, taking notes or minutes, checking on attendance and circulating notes / minutes after the meeting.
Special terms for meetings
Often one attends meetings and becomes totally confused by the terms used during the meeting. At times these terms are used deliberately to confuse the participants. Listed below you will find a list of common, and in some cases not so common, terms used during meetings. The list can be built on. Start your collection now!
Ad hoc: impromptu meeting
Advisory: submitting suggestions or advice to a person or body entitled to carry out decisions and actions
Agenda: a 'timetable' listing items for discussion at a Meeting
AGM: Annual General Meeting
Amendments: alterations usually taking one of the following three forms: addition, deletion or substitution.
Apologies for absence: written or orally delivered excuse for not being able to attend a meeting
Chairperson: co‑ordinator of a committee, working party, etc.
Collective responsibility: all members abide by what the majority decides upon at a meeting
Constitution: (also known as Standing Orders) rules drawn up by an organisation for determining the conduct of its business
Debate: a discussion on a motion (see below), presented by a proposer and a seconder (if there is one)
Executive: having power to act upon and carry out decisions
Ex officio Member of a committee: because a participant holds a particular office
Honorary: performing a duty without payment
Matters arising from the minutes: feedback, follow‑up on action which has been taken to implement the decisions of the previous meeting
Minutes: written summary of a meeting's business
Motion: a topic formally introduced for discussion
Opposer: one who speaks against
Any Other Business: items discussed outside main business of meeting
Proposer: one who speaks in favour of a motion
Quorum: the minimum number of people who must be present in order for the business of the meeting to be conducted. The number is laid down in the constitution. If too few are present at the start, the meeting cannot be declared open and it is post-poned.
Resolution: a decision reached after a vote at formal meetings a motion successfully introduced
Rider: an addition to a resolution after it has been passed
Seconder: a person who formally supports the proposer
Secretary: committee administrator
Sub‑committee: a long‑term committee appointed by the maincommittee to carry out a specific section of its work
Standing committee: one which has an indefinite term of office
Treasurer: financial guardian
Unanimous: all of like mind and in agreement
Voting: if the motion has been thoroughly /adequately debated and the meeting responds in favour of voting, then voting takes place
Summary
In this unit we have introduced you to a number of problems and benefits associated with meetings. School heads spend a considerable amount of time attending or managing meetings, and therefore it is important that you use your time efficiently and effectively during these meetings. As a management tool you will find that meetings can become an effective method of planning activities, informing staff members of activities, motivating a team spirit, co‑ordinating activities, solving problems and building cohesion in the staff room.
However, as we have noted, they can also be counter-productive if not used wisely. They can be irritating for participants and often do not have the desired effect. Careful preparation is therefore required so that the meeting will be as useful as possible for all participants.
Wednesday, September 3, 2008
Managing Conflict
Unit 9
Introduction
I was angry with my friend:
I told my wrath, my wrath did end.
I was angry with my foe:
I told it not, my wrath did grow.
'The Poison Tree' William Blake
Conflict and dispute are part of life. There is no society, community, organisation or interpersonal relationship which does not experience conflict at some time or another as part of daily interaction. Conflict arises when people or groups are engaged in competition to meet goals which are perceived to be, or are in fact, incompatible. Conflict can become physically and emotionally damaging or it can lead to growth and productivity for all parties. It all depends on how conflict is managed and resolved.
Individual study time: 3 hours
Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
¨ understand the nature of conflict
¨ recognise stages of conflict
¨ apply techniques of conflict resolution
¨ establish measures to avoid conflict.
This is such an important area that there are now many commercial courses in “Conflict Resolution” which, if you find this area difficult, you might like to attend.
The nature of conflict
This programme does not attempt to give participants final solutions on conflict resolution, but rather it deals with what school heads might say and do with colleagues, parents and pupils when they cannot agree on certain matters.
How can one describe conflict? One definition is found below:
'Conflict is an open disagreement between two people or groups of people who have different goals and values. Conflict involves people's feelings as well as their objectives, and both feelings as well as outcome of the conflict must be resolved, agreement must be found or a compromise worked out.'
Although this definition is rather negative, a number of comments have been made by writers on the nature of conflict which recognise the definite advantages that can be gained from conflict, including:
¨ confronting the individual with him or herself
¨ forcing reassessment of the position of the other party
¨ redefining of roles and relationships
¨ facilitating change
¨ preventing stagnation
¨ creating an awareness of alternatives and options.
Conflict as a process
The particular nature of conflict situations is not unknown to school heads. At the outset a conflict situation is often perceived as a single event; but this is seldom the case. Conflicts do not simply erupt; rather they develop through various stages, and in each of these stages certain factors contribute to the possibility of conflict.
Resolution aftermath: Depending on the outcome of the resolution the future situation might lead to further conflict or to co‑operation.
Conflict resolution
Conflict management is one of the activities that a school head is exposed to on a daily basis. The types of conflict a school head is exposed to are not restricted to the domain of the school, and in many cases can involve the community and other stakeholders.
Reflect for a moment on the conflict situations you have had to deal with over the past few months.
Five skills for negotiating conflict can also be identified. These are:
¨ define it
¨ understand it
¨ look for 'win‑win' (where all parties to the conflict feel that they have gained something)
¨ act at the right time
¨ check out the results.
These approaches to conflict resolution are valuable and instructive. They embody certain techniques which are very useful in reducing tension between persons or groups, but they do put great emphasis on the school head and her or his skill in being able to negotiate a satisfactory resolution to a conflict.
In dealing with potential conflicts you might want to consider the following:
Ten hints on conflict resolution
1) Nurture a positive atmosphere.
2) Clarify perceptions of yourself and your position.
3) Clarify perceptions of the other parties.
4) Clarify perceptions of the causes of the conflict.
5) Clarify the underlying factors of the cause.
6) Be in charge of your responses.
7) Encourage parties to express feelings.
8) Focus on shared needs and goals.
9) Generate options.
10) Develop and implement 'do‑able' parts.
Negotiation
One way of positive conflict management is negotiation. Negotiation has been defined as: 'A transaction in which both parties have a veto on the final outcome'.
In other words, each party in a negotiation has to consent to the outcome if it is to be implemented and each has an interest in the other agreeing to it. Thus by negotiating we make a joint decision.
According to this definition, negotiation is something we do every day in our personal, professional or business lives. For example, people negotiate with their spouses on whether they spend their money on new household furniture, with their children on which household chores they have to do. They negotiate a salary increase with their bosses and may be part of formal high level negotiations on local, regional, national or international policy or business issues.
We are constantly encouraged to become participants in the development process. Participation means shared decision‑making which means reaching agreement. Successful participation is dependent on the skill of negotiation.
Negotiation is not easy. The majority of people only know two ways of negotiation, namely gentle and soft or tough and hard. Whatever position is taken involves a trade‑off between getting what the parties want and keeping a good relationship between the negotiating parties.
There are many methods of negotiating and you will have your own techniques for which you will have had a measure of success. However the following method is valuable because it can be used everywhere by anybody to negotiate anything.
It will be helpful to have a quick look at the strategies people usually follow when employing this method.
¨ Each party takes up a position, defends it and makes a series of concessions until an agreement is reached or when the negotiations break down because the parties could not make any additional concessions on their positions. One problem with this kind of bargaining is that the main concern becomes the positions of the parties and not the issues which brought the group together in the first place. It is usually a very long process, emotionally draining, but it can produce agreements which will be acceptable to all in the most efficient and friendly way as possible. The method consists of four points which deal with the basics of negotiation. They are people, interests, options and criteria.
¨ PEOPLE - Separate the people from the problem. This first point is important because negotiators are people with their own emotions, beliefs, likes and dislikes which influence the way they perceive the problem and search for a solution. It is thus imperative that negotiating parties identify the problem and work together to solve the problem and do not spend the time trying to attack and change the people involved in the negotiation process.
¨ INTERESTS - Focus on interests and not on the position. This second critical point emphasises the importance of identifying and focusing on the negotiating parties' real interests and not on their positions. Ask the basic question 'why?' to find out your own and the other party's real interests. Moreover, the most powerful, but often most overlooked interests are the universal basic human needs, that is, economic well‑being, security, social acceptance, a sense of belonging and control over one's own life. But above all listen to what is being said.
¨ OPTIONS - Generate a wide variety of possibilities before reaching a decision. Set aside a special time for the parties to invent a wide variety of possible solutions to the problem. It has been found that the major obstacles to inventing options are:
o premature judgement
o the search for the single answer
o assuming that 'solving their problem is their problem'.
To overcome these obstacles it will be necessary to:
o Separate the act of judging from the act of inventing options. One strategy to use is that of brainstorming.
o Look for multiple options which encourages different modes of thinking on the same subject.
o Try and find mutual gain by identifying shared interests.
o Make the solution of their problem also your problem by actively trying to understand their position and coming up with shared solutions.
¨ CRITERIA - Insist that the result be based on objective and standard criteria by which results can be measured. This will ensure a fair solution.
These four points are important and relevant throughout the negotiation process.
This, however, is one proposed way of dealing with conflict. There are so many models. You would do well to research them and find the one that works for you best in different situations.
Strategies of conflict resolution
A popular way of describing conflict resolution strategies is in terms of winning and losing.
These strategies can be broadly described as follows:
Win ‑ lose
The outcome of this strategy is that one party loses and one wins. In most cases this strategy is unsatisfactory, and in all probability the conflict will erupt at a later stage.
Lose ‑ lose
Both parties lose in the deal: usually a third party is involved, and tries to reach a compromise that is seldom acceptable to either of the parties.
Win‑win
Both parties are satisfied with the outcome, and the focus is on solving the problem and not defeating each other.
Summary
In negotiating a solution to a conflict situation the aim of the resolution process should always be to strengthen the future relationship of the parties involved.
The conflict situation can have mutual advantages and benefits if approached in the right manner, and with the right attitude towards a possible resolution.
Striving for a win ‑ win strategy so that both parties can be satisfied with the outcome is the ideal route for a school head to follow. Conflicts should be solved democratically. Make use of a mediator when necessary.
But remember, a school with a lot of conflict on important issues is not a happy and healthy one. As head, it is your role to ensure the smooth running of the school and, as leader, you must motivate your team to such an extent that conflicts are minimal.
Introduction
I was angry with my friend:
I told my wrath, my wrath did end.
I was angry with my foe:
I told it not, my wrath did grow.
'The Poison Tree' William Blake
Conflict and dispute are part of life. There is no society, community, organisation or interpersonal relationship which does not experience conflict at some time or another as part of daily interaction. Conflict arises when people or groups are engaged in competition to meet goals which are perceived to be, or are in fact, incompatible. Conflict can become physically and emotionally damaging or it can lead to growth and productivity for all parties. It all depends on how conflict is managed and resolved.
Individual study time: 3 hours
Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
¨ understand the nature of conflict
¨ recognise stages of conflict
¨ apply techniques of conflict resolution
¨ establish measures to avoid conflict.
This is such an important area that there are now many commercial courses in “Conflict Resolution” which, if you find this area difficult, you might like to attend.
The nature of conflict
This programme does not attempt to give participants final solutions on conflict resolution, but rather it deals with what school heads might say and do with colleagues, parents and pupils when they cannot agree on certain matters.
How can one describe conflict? One definition is found below:
'Conflict is an open disagreement between two people or groups of people who have different goals and values. Conflict involves people's feelings as well as their objectives, and both feelings as well as outcome of the conflict must be resolved, agreement must be found or a compromise worked out.'
Although this definition is rather negative, a number of comments have been made by writers on the nature of conflict which recognise the definite advantages that can be gained from conflict, including:
¨ confronting the individual with him or herself
¨ forcing reassessment of the position of the other party
¨ redefining of roles and relationships
¨ facilitating change
¨ preventing stagnation
¨ creating an awareness of alternatives and options.
Conflict as a process
The particular nature of conflict situations is not unknown to school heads. At the outset a conflict situation is often perceived as a single event; but this is seldom the case. Conflicts do not simply erupt; rather they develop through various stages, and in each of these stages certain factors contribute to the possibility of conflict.
Activity 8.1
1) Identify a particular conflict situation you are familiar with.
2) List the possible stages in the development of this conflict from beginning to end.
1) Identify a particular conflict situation you are familiar with.
2) List the possible stages in the development of this conflict from beginning to end.
Try to match the stages you identified with those discussed below:
Perceived conflict: Potential conflicts are precipitated by how individuals see each other. These perceptions determine whether conflict will occur.
Felt conflict: As mentioned in the definition of conflict, people's feelings and attitudes towards each other, and the particular cause of conflict, will further affect their eventual behaviour.
Manifest conflict: Based on the two stages above confrontation will occur, being either conflictive or problem‑solving.
Conflict resolution: At some point in the process conflict will either be resolved, or it will be suppressed.
Perceived conflict: Potential conflicts are precipitated by how individuals see each other. These perceptions determine whether conflict will occur.
Felt conflict: As mentioned in the definition of conflict, people's feelings and attitudes towards each other, and the particular cause of conflict, will further affect their eventual behaviour.
Manifest conflict: Based on the two stages above confrontation will occur, being either conflictive or problem‑solving.
Conflict resolution: At some point in the process conflict will either be resolved, or it will be suppressed.
Resolution aftermath: Depending on the outcome of the resolution the future situation might lead to further conflict or to co‑operation.
Conflict resolution
Conflict management is one of the activities that a school head is exposed to on a daily basis. The types of conflict a school head is exposed to are not restricted to the domain of the school, and in many cases can involve the community and other stakeholders.
Reflect for a moment on the conflict situations you have had to deal with over the past few months.
Comments
If one is to analyse the situations you have thought about, one assumption that holds true for all the cases is that problems must be solved. It is therefore on this assumption that school heads have to develop their skills in the area of conflict resolution.
If one is to analyse the situations you have thought about, one assumption that holds true for all the cases is that problems must be solved. It is therefore on this assumption that school heads have to develop their skills in the area of conflict resolution.
What is conflict resolution?
'Resolution of conflict occurs when parties involved understand each other's position accurately They are willing to discuss it, because they want to resolve the conflict, regardless of their disagreements. Resolution occurs only when the parties try to reach mutually satisfying solutions.'
In the past, school heads have depended upon a well established hierarchy in authority. The person in the leadership role could make rapid decisions and act autocratically when necessary. This was often used to ‘resolve’ conflict situations but were these solutions lasting and effective in the long‑term?
The definition of conflict resolution posed above assumes a method of problem‑solving that is more democratic in its approach and allows those affected to be involved. The next section suggests some ways in which you might want to approach conflict resolution in the future.
Techniques of conflict resolution
When attempting to reach agreement in a conflict situation it may be useful
to take note of the five causes of conflict usually described by writers. These are differences based on a clash of:
¨ interests
¨ understanding
¨ values
¨ style
¨ opinion.
Writers identify three styles of reaction to conflict. These are:
¨ aggressive ('fight it')
¨ assertive ('negotiate it')
¨ passive ('avoid it').
'Resolution of conflict occurs when parties involved understand each other's position accurately They are willing to discuss it, because they want to resolve the conflict, regardless of their disagreements. Resolution occurs only when the parties try to reach mutually satisfying solutions.'
In the past, school heads have depended upon a well established hierarchy in authority. The person in the leadership role could make rapid decisions and act autocratically when necessary. This was often used to ‘resolve’ conflict situations but were these solutions lasting and effective in the long‑term?
The definition of conflict resolution posed above assumes a method of problem‑solving that is more democratic in its approach and allows those affected to be involved. The next section suggests some ways in which you might want to approach conflict resolution in the future.
Techniques of conflict resolution
When attempting to reach agreement in a conflict situation it may be useful
to take note of the five causes of conflict usually described by writers. These are differences based on a clash of:
¨ interests
¨ understanding
¨ values
¨ style
¨ opinion.
Writers identify three styles of reaction to conflict. These are:
¨ aggressive ('fight it')
¨ assertive ('negotiate it')
¨ passive ('avoid it').
Five skills for negotiating conflict can also be identified. These are:
¨ define it
¨ understand it
¨ look for 'win‑win' (where all parties to the conflict feel that they have gained something)
¨ act at the right time
¨ check out the results.
These approaches to conflict resolution are valuable and instructive. They embody certain techniques which are very useful in reducing tension between persons or groups, but they do put great emphasis on the school head and her or his skill in being able to negotiate a satisfactory resolution to a conflict.
In dealing with potential conflicts you might want to consider the following:
Ten hints on conflict resolution
1) Nurture a positive atmosphere.
2) Clarify perceptions of yourself and your position.
3) Clarify perceptions of the other parties.
4) Clarify perceptions of the causes of the conflict.
5) Clarify the underlying factors of the cause.
6) Be in charge of your responses.
7) Encourage parties to express feelings.
8) Focus on shared needs and goals.
9) Generate options.
10) Develop and implement 'do‑able' parts.
Negotiation
One way of positive conflict management is negotiation. Negotiation has been defined as: 'A transaction in which both parties have a veto on the final outcome'.
In other words, each party in a negotiation has to consent to the outcome if it is to be implemented and each has an interest in the other agreeing to it. Thus by negotiating we make a joint decision.
According to this definition, negotiation is something we do every day in our personal, professional or business lives. For example, people negotiate with their spouses on whether they spend their money on new household furniture, with their children on which household chores they have to do. They negotiate a salary increase with their bosses and may be part of formal high level negotiations on local, regional, national or international policy or business issues.
We are constantly encouraged to become participants in the development process. Participation means shared decision‑making which means reaching agreement. Successful participation is dependent on the skill of negotiation.
Negotiation is not easy. The majority of people only know two ways of negotiation, namely gentle and soft or tough and hard. Whatever position is taken involves a trade‑off between getting what the parties want and keeping a good relationship between the negotiating parties.
There are many methods of negotiating and you will have your own techniques for which you will have had a measure of success. However the following method is valuable because it can be used everywhere by anybody to negotiate anything.
It will be helpful to have a quick look at the strategies people usually follow when employing this method.
¨ Each party takes up a position, defends it and makes a series of concessions until an agreement is reached or when the negotiations break down because the parties could not make any additional concessions on their positions. One problem with this kind of bargaining is that the main concern becomes the positions of the parties and not the issues which brought the group together in the first place. It is usually a very long process, emotionally draining, but it can produce agreements which will be acceptable to all in the most efficient and friendly way as possible. The method consists of four points which deal with the basics of negotiation. They are people, interests, options and criteria.
¨ PEOPLE - Separate the people from the problem. This first point is important because negotiators are people with their own emotions, beliefs, likes and dislikes which influence the way they perceive the problem and search for a solution. It is thus imperative that negotiating parties identify the problem and work together to solve the problem and do not spend the time trying to attack and change the people involved in the negotiation process.
¨ INTERESTS - Focus on interests and not on the position. This second critical point emphasises the importance of identifying and focusing on the negotiating parties' real interests and not on their positions. Ask the basic question 'why?' to find out your own and the other party's real interests. Moreover, the most powerful, but often most overlooked interests are the universal basic human needs, that is, economic well‑being, security, social acceptance, a sense of belonging and control over one's own life. But above all listen to what is being said.
¨ OPTIONS - Generate a wide variety of possibilities before reaching a decision. Set aside a special time for the parties to invent a wide variety of possible solutions to the problem. It has been found that the major obstacles to inventing options are:
o premature judgement
o the search for the single answer
o assuming that 'solving their problem is their problem'.
To overcome these obstacles it will be necessary to:
o Separate the act of judging from the act of inventing options. One strategy to use is that of brainstorming.
o Look for multiple options which encourages different modes of thinking on the same subject.
o Try and find mutual gain by identifying shared interests.
o Make the solution of their problem also your problem by actively trying to understand their position and coming up with shared solutions.
¨ CRITERIA - Insist that the result be based on objective and standard criteria by which results can be measured. This will ensure a fair solution.
These four points are important and relevant throughout the negotiation process.
This, however, is one proposed way of dealing with conflict. There are so many models. You would do well to research them and find the one that works for you best in different situations.
Strategies of conflict resolution
A popular way of describing conflict resolution strategies is in terms of winning and losing.
These strategies can be broadly described as follows:
Win ‑ lose
The outcome of this strategy is that one party loses and one wins. In most cases this strategy is unsatisfactory, and in all probability the conflict will erupt at a later stage.
Lose ‑ lose
Both parties lose in the deal: usually a third party is involved, and tries to reach a compromise that is seldom acceptable to either of the parties.
Win‑win
Both parties are satisfied with the outcome, and the focus is on solving the problem and not defeating each other.
Summary
In negotiating a solution to a conflict situation the aim of the resolution process should always be to strengthen the future relationship of the parties involved.
The conflict situation can have mutual advantages and benefits if approached in the right manner, and with the right attitude towards a possible resolution.
Striving for a win ‑ win strategy so that both parties can be satisfied with the outcome is the ideal route for a school head to follow. Conflicts should be solved democratically. Make use of a mediator when necessary.
But remember, a school with a lot of conflict on important issues is not a happy and healthy one. As head, it is your role to ensure the smooth running of the school and, as leader, you must motivate your team to such an extent that conflicts are minimal.
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